1. INTRODUCTION:

The study, design, production, synthesis, manipulation, and application of materials, materials, and technologies at the nanoscale—one meter is equal to one billion nanometers—is known as nanotechnology. The best way to characterize nanotechnology is as a description of atomic and molecular activities with practical applications. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, or ten times the diameter of a hydrogen atom, or around 1/80,000 of the diameter of a human hair. The use of nanotechnology in medicine has garnered a lot of interest lately. There are a lot of time-consuming and costly therapy options available today. Nanotechnology can be used to develop treatments more quickly and affordably. Nanorobots are tiny devices that are employed in human illness prevention or treatment. It is a tiny gadget with a single, occasionally negative purpose that operates at the 1-100nm nanoscale. Their aspiration is to work in the sectors of production and medical, namely in the areas of molecules and cells. Since carbon is the primary component of nanorobots and possesses the inertness and resilience of fullerenes and diamonds, nanorobots are equipped with an exterior passive diamond coating that is intended to thwart immune system attacks. Since they are imperceptible to the unaided eye, methods like atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are not easily applied to them or studied. The primary function of nanorobotics in cancer therapy is to identify and eliminate cancer cells. When combined with chemical biosensors, nanorobotics can also be used to detect tumor cells inside a patient's body when they are still in the early stages of growth.

· The body's cancer cells were eliminated by nanorobots.

· Replacing DNA cells;

· Eliminating blood vessel obstructions.

Figure 1: Nanorobotics

Medical nanorobots are defined as untethered nanostructures that contain an engine or are capable of transforming diverse types of energy sources to mechanical forces and perform a medical task^1-6. Due to their small sizes, nanorobots can directly interact with cells and even penetrate them, providing direct access to the cellular machineries^7,8. As an interdisciplinary technology, nanorobots address the assembly and utilization of functional nano-to molecular scale machines and have been widely used in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanorobots are nanosized machineries able to deliver payloads (drugs, genes, sensing molecules, etc.), achieve some certain (biomedical) functions (diagnosis, therapeutic actions), have targeting ability to search for tumour/disease sites, as well have an active or passive power system able to receive external power sources (NIR light, ultrasound, magnetic driving force, etc.) or to utilize the medium blood flow existing in a biological system. The key differences between nanorobots and nanocarriers are the active power system.

A nanorobot is an artificially constructed device that may freely diffuse throughout the human body and interact molecularly with a particular cell. Diseases brought on by stress or viral attacks typically alter the chemical composition of the cell, which in turn sets off nanorobots.

Nanorobots will be able to analyze the surface of all cell types to identify antigens, determine the health of the cell, identify the parent organ, and virtually all other information about a cell. They will also be able to identify specific molecules and cells using chemotactic sensors, making it simple to target them for action. Additionally, a 1 cm3 nanorobot injection could introduce at least 0.5 cm3 of chemical agent specifically into the cells, and sensors could perform tests.

Figure 2: Nanorobots which are used to attack the cancerous cell

2. HISTORY:

1980s by Nobel laureate Richard Smalley. Smalley extended his vision to carbon nanotubes discovered by Sumio Iijima and envisioned as the next super-connectivity for ultra-small electronics. The term nanotechnology has evolved to mean manipulation elements to create unique and hopefully useful structures⁹.

December 29, 1959: Richard Feynman delivered the famous line “There's plenty of room in the hall. Down" talk. - The first use of the terms nanotechnology. Describes individual atoms andmolecules that can be manipulated.

1974: Professor Norio Taniguchi defines nanotechnologyas “the processing, separation, consolidation and deformation of materialsatom/molecule.”

1980s: Dr. Eric Drexler publishes several scientific articles promotingphenomena and devices at the nanoscale.

1986: The book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is published by Dr. Eric Drexler. He envisioned nanorobots as self-replicating. The first book on nanotechnology.

3. TYPES OF NANOROBOTS:

Some researchers classify nanorobots in drug delivery and therapeutics according to the their applications, which are described below

· Pharmacyte

· Diagnosis and Imaging

· Respirocyte

· Microbivores

· Clottocytes

· Chromallocyte

3.1 Pharmacyte

It is a 1-2µm long medical nanorobot that can carry 1 µm3 of drug administered into the tank. They are controlled using a pump. It is equipped with molecular markers or chemotactic sensors that guarantee absolute accuracy. The ship's energy is oxygen obtained from the local environment, such as blood, gastric fluid, and cytoplasm. Once the nanorobot has completed its work, it can be removed or recycled using centrifugal nano separation.

Figure 3: A Fictitious pharmacyte

3.2 Diagnosis and Imaging:

They have microchips that are covered with human molecules. The chip is designed to send an electrical signal when molecules detect disease. He gives an example of special sensor nanobots that can be introduced into the blood under skin, where they check the blood content and report any diseases. They can also be used to monitor sugar blood level. The advantage is the low production price and easy handling.

Figure 4: Nanorobots in blood vessels for diagnosis and imaging

3.3 Respirocyte:

It is an oxygen-carrying nanorobot that expresses red blood cells. Energy is obtained from endogenous serum glucose. Progenitor cells deliver 236 times more oxygen and acid to tissues per unit volume than RBCs (red blood cells).

Figure 4: Respirocyte

3.4 Microbivores:

It is a flat spherical device for nanomedical applications with a major axis diameter of 34 μm and a minor axis diameter 2.0 m. Nanorobots can continuously use up to 200 pW of energy, which is used to digest captured bacteria. Next a special report mentions the ability of phagocytic cells to outnumber macrophage workers approximately 80 times terms of volume spent per unit volume/second.

Figure 5: Microbivores

3.5 Clottocytes:

This is a nanorobot with a unique and fun ability that can "instantly" stop bleeding using blood clots or artificial devices. As we all know, platelets are spherical blood cells with nuclei 2 microns in diameter. Platelets bind to bleeding place: this is where they solidify, become sticky, and join together to form a cushion that helps close the blood vessels and stop bleeding. bleeding. They also prescribe medications that help blood clot.

3.6 Chromallocyte:

A Chromallocyte would replace entire chromosomes in individual cells, reversing the effects of a genetic disease and other accumulated damage to our genes, preventing aging Inside the cell, the repair machinery first assesses the situation by examining the contents and activity of the cell and then intervene by working molecule by molecule and Structure by structure, the repair machinery will be able to repair entire cells.

4. STRUCTURE AND DESIGN OF NANOROBOTS:

The components of nanorobots are made of carbon and use diamond or fullerenes because it is inert and strong. Other materials used at the nanoscale are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, fluorine, etc. The features of nanorobots are as follows,

· Medicine cavity: This is a hollow section in nanorobots used to hold small drugs inside the robot, which can deliver drugs directly to the site of injury or infection.

· Probes, knives and chisels: These probes, blades, and chisels are used to remove plaque and blockages. These help nanorobots process and destroy information. They may also need a device to break the blood vessels into smaller pieces. If part of the artery breaks and enters the artery, this can cause further problems in the artery.

· Microwave emitters and Ultrasonic signal generators: They are used to destroy cells (such as cancer cells) before they burst. Nanorobots can destroy chemicals in cancer cells using the right microwave signal. Kill the walls of the hand without damaging them. Alternatively, the robot can emit microwave or ultrasound signals to heat cancer cells enough to destroy them.

· Electrodes: Nanorobots use electrodes to generate electric current that heats cells until they die or destroy.

· Lasers: Lasers are used to burn harmful materials like cancerous cells, blood clots and plaques 1.e. these lasers vaporize tissues. With the help of powerful laser vaporizing cancerous cells in the challenging work, but this laser does not harm to surrounding tissues.

· Power supply for nanorobots: Of course, the most important thing about nanorobots is energy. Nanorobots need electricity to do all the work they need. There are two ways to do this. The first is to obtain the power from a source within the body, either by having a self-contained power supply or by getting power from the bloodstream.

· The second possibility is to provide the body with energy coming from outside.

4.1 Nanorobotics Laparoscopy:

There are currently multiple robotic systems in use for laparoscopy 10. The robotic arm of the laparoscopic system can be moved using voice (or pedal) control. The laparoscope is typically held in the arm, however it can also be held by the laparoscopic retractor. Commonly, a pre-programmed speech card is utilized, which allows the equipment to comprehend and react to commands from the surgeon. Compared to untrained human assistants, laparoscopic images are more steady, with fewer camera shifts and inadvertent device collisions. One such device is the daVinci surgical system 11, which is to blame for the sharp rise in robotic surgeries carried out during the previous five years.

To date, DaVinci is the most sophisticated master-slave system available. The fundamental idea involves a person controlling three or four robotic arms with a sitting at a dashboard was a surgeon. The three parts of the system are the insufflation reservoir or image processing equipment, the patient cart, and the surgeon console. The suggested method also analyzes an additional element: d) Small-scale robots.

Figure 6: A daVinci robot

5. ADVANTAGES OF NANOROBOTS¹²

· Use of nanorobotic drug delivery systems with higher bioavailability.

· Only for therapeutic purposes such as the treatment of malignant diseases

· Reach remote parts of the human body that surgeons cannot reach

· Since drug molecules are transported by nanorobots and release the desired one, the wide interface area is utilized during mass transfer.

· Automated technology

· Through computer control, efficient output volume, frequency and time buttons.

· Accuracy is higher.

· Drugs do not work in areas that do not need treatment, minimizing side effects.

· Small. The size limit of nanorobots is 3 microns, which allows them to flow easily through the body without clogging blood vessels.

6. DISADVANTAGES OF NANOROBOTS:

· The initial design cost is very high¹².

· The design of the nanorobot is a very complicated one.

· Electrical systems can create stray fields which may activate bioelectric-based molecular recognition systems in biology.

· Electrical nanorobots are susceptible to electrical interference from external sources such as rf or electric fields, EMP pulses, and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices.

· Hard to Interface, Customize, and Design, Complex.

· Nanorobots can cause a brutal risk in the field of terrorism. Terrorism and anti-groups can make use of nanorobots as a new form of torturing the communities as nanotechnology also has the capability of destructing the human body at the molecular level.

· Privacy is the other potential risk involved with Nanorobots. As Nanorobots deals with the designing of compact and minute devices, there are chances for more eavesdropping than that already exists in NANOROBOTS,

· The nanorobot should be very accurate, otherwise, Harmful effects may occur.

7. NANOROBOTS IN CANCER TREATMENT:

Cancer could be defined as a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body defines cancer and the number of individuals affected continues to rise every year ¹³. Cancerit ranks first in their search because of its impact on human life and its cost to the economy. According to the Global Oncology Trend Report by the IMS Institute for Health care Informatics estimates global spending on cancer drugs reached $100 billion in 2014.Cancer treatment is probably the main reason for the development of nanorobotics, it can be successfully treated using current stages of medical technology and therapeutic tools swith the help of nanorobotics. To determine the prognosis and chances of a cancer patientto survive could be considered: the time of the evolution of the disease with respect to the time of diagnosis ifearlier they have a better prognosis; another important aspect to achieving successful treatment patients is the development of effectively targeted drug delivery to reduce side effects chemotherapy ¹³. Considering the properties of nanorobots to navigate as blood-borne devices, they can help important treatment processes of complex diseases with early diagnosis and smart drug delivery A nanorobot can provide effective early diagnosis and help with cancer smart chemotherapy for drug delivery.

Nanorobots as drug carriers for timely dosing regimens enable maintenance of chemical compounds for a longer period of time as needed into the bloodstream, they provide predicted pharmacokinetic parameters for chemotherapy in antitumor treatment. He avoids present resulting extravasation towards non-reticuloendothelial localized cancers with high degenerative side effects during the chemotherapy process. Nanorobots with chemicals nano biosensors can be programmed to detect different levels of E-cadherin and beta-cateninas medical targets in the primary and metastatic stages aiding in target and drug identification delivery^14-17.

7.1 Drug Delivery and Nanorobots in Cancer Treatment

When using nanorobots in a clinical setting for medical, surgical, or therapeutic objectives, intravenous injection should be used. As a result, patients can receive nanorobots directly into their bloodstream. For the pharmacokinetics of chemotherapy, a major cancer treatment cycle consists of absorption, metabolism, and a break to allow the body to heal before starting another round of chemotherapy. For pediatric cancers, patients are often treated in cycles every two weeks. Using proteomic basis sensors, nanorobots should be able to perform this analysis and deliver a body diagnosis in less than a week as a first step for medical purposes. Protein medication distribution to solid tumors can be predicted by utilizing magnetic resonance imaging to study the kinetics of low-molecular-weight absorption. Consequently, a comparable strategy that is helpful for validating in Targeted antigen detection for in vivo nanorobot biosensor activation. An essential component of nanorobotics research is testing and diagnostics. allows for early disease identification and quick diagnosis testing during the initial appointment, eliminating the requirement for a follow-up visit following a laboratory test. One of the main obstacles to using nanorobotics in vivo is the energy needed for propulsion. Since "low efficiency and low convective motion are associated with low inertia and high viscous forces," higher energy levels are needed. Toxic fuel was used in the chemically propelled nanomotors. Due to the availability of alternate energy sources including light and sound waves, more study has been done on the in vivo uses of nanorobots, which has resulted in an increase in patent applications. One investigation into nanomotors titled "Acoustic propulsion of nanorod motors inside living cell"^18-24.

7.2 Mechanism of Action of Nanorobotics in Cancer Treatment²⁵

Nanotechnology has made a big difference revolution in case of selective tumor targeting, making it a better tool for cancer treatment. Nanoparticles (Robots)are designed based on different modifications such as resizing them, shape, chemical and physical properties, etc. which makes it easy to program effectively target the desired cells. They can target cells either throughactive or passive targeting. Active targeting is based on molecular recognition where the surface is nanoparticles are modified to target the cancer cells. In case of active targeting, containing nanoparticles chemotherapeutic agents are designed inin such a way that they directly interact with them damaged cells. Usually targeted agents are connected to the surfacenanoparticles for molecular recognition. Targeted delivery based on nanotechnology the system has three main components:

(i) Apoptosis-inducing agent (anti-cancer medicine),

(ii) Penetration of the targeted part

(iii) Carrier.

Nanoparticles can also target cancer through passive targeting. In this process focus was facilitated through Endoplasmic reticulum (EPR) in which gold nanorods were delivered to the tumor tissue via EPR and is used for heatingtumor after laser irradiation. Nanocarriersare targeted agents that are used in cancer therapy that includes targeted groups, anticancer drugs and polymers. Most current nanotechnology drugs rely on EPR effect to ensure high drug accumulation for treatment of solid tumors and thereby improvement treatment effectiveness. Nanoparticlesthe sensitivity of pH sensors is promising approach in cancer treatment. From pHthe surrounding area of tumor cells is more acidic, carriers that can change the solubility tolower pH can be used for targeting and release drugs into cells. Extracellularthe environment of solid tumors is acidic andthere is an altered pH gradient across their cellular compartments. Detection cancer cells in the body generally form the use of chemical sensors it uses E-cadherin signals that it is calcium of dependent cell adhesion molecules, Studies have shown that nanorobots sensing E-cadherinthe expression of protein signals is very high decreased in case of cancerous tissues. This affects cellular pH and with the help of these pH sensors, I.e. phosphatidic acid, nanorobots are able to distinguish between normal and cancer cells cells. Next approach is that nanorobots are able distinguish between tumor cells and healthy cells by checking their antigenicity surface using chemical sensorswhich are labeled on specific antigenstarget cells. Chemical sensors help of nanorobots in recognition tumor cells because they differ affinity for each cell . Once tumor cells are perceived by nano robotsinjects the cancer antidote into the tumor cells and destroys the cell without damages healthy cells.

8. APPLICATION OF NANOROBOTICS IN MEDICAL FIELD:

Cancer Detection and treatment

Detection and treatment of diabetes

Nanorobots in heart attack prevention

Nanorobots in kidney disease

Dentistry

Deliver the drug

Surgery

Gene Therapy

9. FUTURE SCOPE AND CONCLUSION:

Advanced research is being done on the topic of nano robots, and numerous technological techniques are being investigated. In the medical field, nanorobots are still in the very early stages of research, but their use can be expanded to investigate internal body adaptability mechanisms. Computed tomography (CT), PET, and magnetic resonance imaging can locate impacted areas at the tissue level. Nonetheless, these little particles allow us to identify impacted regions at the cellular level. An overview of current advancements in nanorobot activities for medical applications is given in this publication. Not only may nanobots assist physicians and surgeons in combating deadly illnesses, but they can also be used to treat ordinary viral and bacterial infections.

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Received on 15.04.2024 Modified on 30.04.2024

Research J. Science and Tech. 2024; 16(2):151-158.

DOI: 10.52711/2349-2988.2024.00022